1. Virtual Machines
   • How to run multiple OSes on one machine?
   • Constraint: Compatibility. Don't want to change existing kernel code.
   • We'll run multiple virtual machines (VMs) on a single CPU. Kernel equivalent is the "virtual machine monitor" (VMM).
   • Can run VMM as user-mode app inside host OS, or run VMM on hardware in kernel mode with guest OSes in user mode. We'll talk about second, but the issues are the same.
   • Role of VMM:
     • Allocate resources.
     • Dispatch events.
     • Deal with instructions from guest OS that require interaction with the physical hardware.
   • Attempt 1: Emulate every single instruction.
     • Problem: Slow.
   • Attempt 2: Guest OSes run instructions directly on CPU.
     • Problem: Dealing with privileged instructions (can't run in kernel mode; then we'd be back to our original problem).
   • VMM will deal with handling privileged instructions.
2. Virtual Machine Monitor (VMM) Implementation
   • Trap and emulate
     • Guest OS in user mode.
     • Privileged instructions cause an exception; VMM intercepts these and emulates.
     • If VMM can't emulate, send exception back up to guest OS.
   • Problems:
     • How to do the emulate
     • How to deal with instructions that don't trigger an interrupt but that the VMM still needs to intercept.
3. Virtualizing Memory
   • VMM needs to translate guest OS addresses into physical memory addresses. Three layers: Guest virtual, guest physical, host physical.
   • Approach 1: Shadow pages
     • Guest OS loads PTR; causes interrupt. VMM intercepts.
     • VMM locates guest OS's page table. Combines guest OS's table with its own table, constructing a third table mapping guest virtual to host physical.
     • VMM loads host physical addr of this new page table into the hardware PTR.
     • If guest OS modifies its page table, no interrupt thrown. To force an interrupt, VMM marks guest OS's page table as read-only memory.
   • Approach 2
     • Modern hardware has support for virtualization.
     • Physical hardware (effectively) knows about both levels of tables: Will do lookup in the guest OS's page table and then the VMM's page table.
4. Virtualizing U/K Bit
   • Problem with basic trap-and-emulate: U/K bit involved in some instructions that don't cause exception (e.g., reading U/K bit, writing it to U).
   • Few solutions:
     • Para-virtualization: Modify guest OS. Hard to do, and goes against our compatibility goal.
     • Binary translation: VMM analyzes code from guest OS and replaces problematic instructions.
     • Hardware support: Some architectures have virtualization support built in. Have special VMM operating mode in addition to the U/K bit.
   • Hardware support is arguably the best. Makes VMM's job easier.
5. Monolithic Kernels
   • VMs protect OSes from each other’s faults, protect physical machine from OS faults. Why so many bugs, though?
   • The Linux kernel is, effectively, one large C program. Careful software engineering, but very little modularity within the kernel itself.
   • Bugs come about because of its complexity.
   • Kernel bugs = entire system failure (recall the in-class demo).
   • Even worse: Adversary can exploit these bugs.
6. Microkernels: Alternative to Monolithic Kernels
   • Put subsystems—file servers, device drivers, etc.—in user programs. More modular.
   • There will still be bugs but:
     • Fewer, because of decreased complexity.
     • A single bug is less likely to crash the entire system.
   • Why isn't Linux a microkernel, then?
     • High communication cost between modules.
     • Not clear that moving programs to userspace is worth it.
     • Hard to balance dependencies (e.g., sharing memory across modules).
     • Redesign is tough!
     • Spend a year of developer time rewriting the kernel or adding new features?
     • Microkernels can make it more difficult to change interfaces.
   • Some parts of Linux do have microkernel design aspects.
7. Summary
   • Cool things we do with VMs: Run different OSes on a single machine, move VMs from one physical machine to another.
   • Microkernels and VMs solve orthogonal problems.
     • Microkernels: Split up monolithic designs.
     • VMs: Let us run many instances of an existing OS. They are, in some sense, a partial solution to monolithic kernels (at least we can run these kernels safely). But their goal is to run multiple OSes on a single piece of hardware, not to target monolithic OSes specifically.
   • VMs most commonly implemented with hardware support (a special VMM mode in addition to U/K bit).